Hepatitis B :: essays research papers

Risk Factors for HBV Infection Although relatively rare in the United States, hepatitis B is endemic in parts of Asia where hundreds of millions of individuals may be infected. HBV is transmitted horizontally by blood and blood products and sexual transmission. It is also transmitted vertically from mother to infant in the perinatal period which is a major mode of transmission in regions where hepatitis B is endemic. The blood supply in developed countries has been screened for HBV for many years and at present transmission by blood transfusion is extremely rare. Major routes of transmission among adults in Western countries are intravenous drug use and sexual contact. The risk of HBV infection is notably high in promiscuous homosexual men but it is also transmitted sexually from men to women and women to men. Transmission is probably prevented by correct use of condoms. Health care workers and patients receiving hemodialysis are also at increased risk of infection. Effective vaccines are available for the prevention of HBV infection. All individuals at risk for infection should be vaccinated. Post-exposure prophylaxis with hepatitis B immune globulin is also effective for non-immune individuals after a known exposure (e. g. needle stick). Consequences of HBV Infection HBV causes acute and chronic hepatitis. The chances of becoming chronically infected depends upon age. About 90% of infected neonates and 50% of infected young children will become chronically infected. In contrast, only about 5% to 10% of immunocompetent adults infected with HBV develop chronic hepatitis B. In some individuals who become chronically infected, especially neonates and children, the acute infection will not be clinically apparent. Acute hepatitis B can range from subclinical disease to fulminant hepatic failure in about 2% of cases. Many acutely infected individuals develop clinically apparent acute hepatitis with loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, fever, abdominal pain and jaundice. In cases of fulminant hepatic failure from acute HBV infection, orthotopic liver transplantation can be life-saving. About 90% to 95% of acutely infected adults recover without sequelae. About 5% to 10% of acutely infected adults become chronically infected. The natural history of chronic HBV infection can vary dramatically between individuals. Some will develop a condition commonly referred to as a chronic carrier state. These patients, who are still potentially infectious, have no symptoms and no abnormalities on laboratory testing. Nonetheless, some of these patients will have evidence of hepatitis on liver biopsy. Some individuals with chronic hepatitis B will have clinically insignificant or minimal liver disease and never develop complications.

Media Influence On Public Policy Essay -- politics, government

Policymaking is a political process which is affected by various social and economic factors (Hofferbert, 1974) and media systems play an integral role in shaping the social context in which policies are developed. Through the media, citizens learn how government policies will affect them, and governments gain feedback on their policies and programs. Media systems act as the primary channels between those who might want to influence policy and the policymakers '' controlling the scope of political discourse and regulating the flow of information. Textbook policymaking follows an orderly sequence where problems are identified, solutions devised, policies adopted, implemented, and lastly evaluated (Mazamanian & Sabatier, 1989). In reality, the policy process is more fluid, where policies are formed through the struggle of ideas of various advocacy coalitions (Sabatier, 1991) in what has been described as a policy primeval soup (Kingdon, 1995). The policies, on which the media focuses can, and often does, play an important part in determining the focal issues for policymakers. One of the fundamental roles of the media in a liberal democracy is to critically scrutinise governmental affairs: that is to act as a watchdog of government to ensure that the government can be held accountable by the public. However, the systematic deregulation of media systems worldwide is diminishing the ability of citizens to meaningfully participate in policymaking process governing the media (McChesney, 2003, p. 126). The relaxation of ownership rules and control, has resulted in a move away from diversity of production to a situation where media ownership is becoming increasing concentrated by just a few predominantly western global conglomerates (M... ... small media reforms (like public journalism) will be enough to reduce the commercial and corporate imperatives driving our existing media systems (Hackett and Zhao, 1998, p. 235). Instead, a fundamental reform of the entire system is needed, together with a wider institutional reform of the very structures the media systems work within, our democracies. This will be a difficult task, due to powerful vested interests benefiting from the status quo, including media, political and economic elites. Reforms will need to be driven by campaigns mobilising public support across the political spectrum, to enable the citizens of the world to have a media system that works to strengthen democratic principles as opposed to undermining them. This task is challenging, but it will become easier once people begin to understand the media’s role in policymaking within our democracies.

Free Essays - Anthony Burgess A Clockwork Orange :: Clockwork Orange Essays

Banned for social reasons in many conditions and in many school systems, Anthony Burgess’s A Clockwork Orange first seems to pierce the mind with its bizarre linguistic orgy of debauchery, brutality, and sex, and for some, refuses to affect them above the level of pure voyeurism and bloodlust (either for reveling in it or despising it). Sadism seems to twist the male protagonist; his mind becomes alive with brutal fantasies whilst listening to seemingly innocuous classical music ( â€Å"There were vecks and ptitsas, both young and starry, lying on the ground screaming for mercy, and I was smecking all over my rot and grinding my boot in their litsos.†). Many arguments have been made about the censorship of this novella which â€Å"glorifies sex and violence;† however, these elements are clearly manipulated for plot development and character development, and ultimately, the story does pose a moral lesson. By psychological definition, people affected with anti-social disorder (also known as â€Å"sociopaths† or â€Å"psychopaths†) have incredible manipulation skills; they also fail to â€Å"conform to social norms,† are deceitful and aggressive, and seek to destroy with little remorse. Sex, cruelty, and dominance define parts of anti-social behavior, and the odd near-antithesis of a hero, Alex, exists as the beloved psychopath in this cult story. He vigorously goes on nightly rampages with his band of â€Å"droogs† after consuming spiked â€Å"moloko,† tearing down what society has morally built and ripping holes into the reasoning of random citizens. Here, Burgess utilizes a unique method of writing by making the readers realize their affection for this teenage criminal, even in the midst of his violent perversions. As stated in many other summaries and analogies of the book, the ethics derived from the book revolve around the topic of choice. Is a person truly moral if their â€Å"benevolence† comes from forced conditioning as opposed to their personal choice for compassion? Does programmed decency towards people ultimately possess superiority over a natural psychosis? It can be argued that programmed decency protects the happiness of the main population, but natural psychosis comes from the choice of the individual, and protects their happiness (if the psychosis served as a source of joy for the individual to begin with, not insanity that brings about manic-depression and whatnot). Building the character of Alex to fully express the story and the questions the book will eventually pose doubtlessly requires the use of savage raping, theft, and the vicious, bloody beatings administered to many common people; these portions of A

Important of English Language Essay

Language plays an important role in human life. One tries to acquire, learn and use language as a means of communication, and simultaneously as social symbol of humanity. By using language someone could make statements, convey facts and knowledge, explain or report something, and keep social relations among the language users. These indicate that by means of language, people can express their ideas, feeling, information etc through communication. , As one of language in the world, English is considered and applied as international language. Since then, it is very popular and have been spoken and learnt by almost people in the world. There are some reasons why English is important and many people attempt to learn it. Some of them are: for finding job, traveling, interacting one each other, doing business, taking examination, doing research, writing in the foreign language, etc. In such developing country like Indonesia, English has a vital role in all aspects of life, particularly in science and technology. Furthermore, it can be used for developing relationships in the international forum, for reading English book (especially for students from primary school up to colleges/university), to tighten the relationship among nations in the world, etc. As students, we learn English are intended to obtain various knowledge, to comprehend and understand the textbooks learned in English, to gain knowledge and skills, and to be ready enter to the university, as one of the test requirements for students of senior High School (SMA), etc This expression reminds us how importance of English for human life is. As global or universal language, English is not only enables us to communicate and interact with every people throughout the world, but also it could alter our life to be better. Furthermore, we also must be aware that the western countries play extra ordinary role in developing and keeping science and technology. Thus, if we want to be a skilful scientists, linguists, and be able to compete with the other countries in the world, we must understand, master and learn the language they use, namely English. Before ending this speech, let me conclude the essential points of my speech: 1. English is highly necessary to be learned and mastered by everyone, in order to be able to compete in the globalization era; 2. English is a key to open and master science and technology, because most of scientists write their experts and inventions in English. 3. As students of high school (SMA), we have to prepare ourselves by learning hard, particularly English as well as the other subjects at school; 4. By mastering English enables us to become survive and go anywhere throughout the world;

Constructing Feminine Form for Masculine Sake Essay

Fashion provides one of the most ready means through which individuals can make expressive visual statements about their identities. (Bennett, 2005) Constructing Feminine Form for Masculine Sake. Does it make sense to say that sex is at the heart of identity today? The answer is surely yes, and more so than ever before. (Gauntlett, 2008). Introduction. Consider the cover of the December 2011 edition of FHM (Fig. 1). It portrays a constructed ideal of female attractiveness. Aimed at the male market it conveys the attributes of female form deemed attractive to men. Has this identity been constructed by women or imposed upon by men? Butler (1999) suggests ‘the female body is marked within masculinist discourse’ , and women have not had the freedom to create their own identity, ‘women with the ostensibly sexualized features of their bodies and, hence, a refusal to grant freedom and autonomy to women as it is purportedly enjoyed by men’ (Butler, 1999). Macdonald (1995) notes that this enforced construction is neither a new concept nor just present in magazines aimed at a male audience: The body has historically been much more integral to the formation of identity for women than for men. If women had defined for themselves the ideals of their bodily shape or decoration, this would not be problematic. It is the denial of this right in the western cultural representation, in medical practice and in the multi-billion dollar pornography, fashion and cosmetic industries, that has granted women only squatter’s rights to their own bodies. However for the purpose of this essay we will concentrate on the feminine identity constructed in men’s lifestyle magazines and identify from where this was created. Why we enjoy beauty. ‘It is suggested that what makes one thing beautiful and another less so is our psychological attraction, probably unconscious, to some quality in the former that is absent from the latter, combined of course with equally-implicit cultural biases.’ (Lakoff and Scherr, 1984) Considering this, it is hard to determine how a particular portrayal of the female form is universally attractive. However studying the following passage from Sigmund Freud’s study Civilization and its Discontents we can note the possibility that the images constructed of women in men’s magazines are not to portray beauty, but to invoke sexual feeling through lack of clothing and provocative poses: Psychoanalysis, unfortunately, has scarcely anything to say about beauty either. All that seems certain is its derivation from the field of sexual feeling. The love of beauty seems a perfect example of an impulse inhibited in its aim. ‘Beauty’ and ‘attraction’ are originally attributes of the sexual object. (Lakoff and Scherr, 1984) Another psychotherapist Lacan puts forward the idea ‘women are objects for men: men are objects for women: men are objects for men, and women are objects for women. Each of us can only ever be objects for another subject, however much we try. (Hill, 1997) With this in mind it can be said that all identity is constructed to receive the admiration of others, regardless of gender. (Gauntlett, 2008) states ‘sex as being at the core of identity’ further suggesting that male identity is constructed with the same intentions the female. Although ‘it has been women in particular who have been defined primarily in terms of their physical appearance’ (Negrin, 2008). The emergence of new men’s lifestyle magazines. It is interesting to note that men’s lifestyle magazines are not a new concept, neither has their content changed over time. The earliest attempt to launch a men’s lifestyle magazine in the UK was in 1935, it consisted of ‘heroic masculinity with style features and pictures of female nudes’. (Gill, 2007). The 1950’s saw the launch of Playboy, a lifestyle magazine aimed at an emerging class of men who enjoyed consumption as much as their female counterparts. The magazine ‘became the ‘bible’ for the men who dominated this class fraction; its individualistic, hedonistic, consumption-orientated ethic of personal gratification represented a rebellion against the ‘old’ figure of male as breadwinner and family provider and opened up a space of libidinous fun and lascivious consumption, albeit premised on troublingly sexualized and objectified representations of women. (Gill, 2007). The content of such magazines was not necessarily in place to objectify women but to protect the ‘new man’s’ masculinity. ‘Consumption for men was promoted in an atmosphere not threatened by suspicions of homosexuality’ (Gill, 2007) and said of Playboy ‘the breasts and bottoms were necessary not just to sell the magazine, but also to protect it’ (Ehrenreich, 1983.). If we look forward to the 80’s and 90’s we see a new generation of men’s magazines emerging, ‘constructed around an assumed white, working class aesthetic and sensibility, centred on football, (beer) drinking, and heterosexual sex. (Gill, 2007) In circulation terms, figures from 2006 show that over 370,000 copies of FHM are sold per month and almost 300,000 copies of Nuts per week. (Gauntlett, 2008). From this we can see the popularity of such publications and the importance of the portrayal of a new type of masculinity. Considering the content of these magazines; ‘numerous photo-shoots of semi-clothed and topless women appear in the UK magazines’ (Gauntlett, 2008), and speaking of the launch of Loaded ‘the sexual politics of the magazine were in place from the first issue, which featured photographs of Liz Hurley, a homage to hotel sex, porn channels etc., a ‘travel feature’ recounting cheap cocaine and cheap women, and the Miss Guyama bikini contest. (Gill, 2007). The magazines depict the rise of a new type of masculinity or the ‘new lad’, the figure of which ‘became embedded in advertising and popular culture- his multiple articulations in different spaces generating a sense of his solidity and ‘realness’, making him instantly recognizable as an embodiment of a type of masculinity’ (Gill, 2007). This new generation of ‘Lads Mags’ has often been attributed to two factors; firstly the ‘feminine backlash’ occurring in the 80’s. These new publications ‘constructed around knowingly misogynist and predatory attitudes to women, represents a refusal to acknowledge the changes in gender relations produced by feminism, and an attack on it. (Gill, 2007) served to reaffirm male dominance in the gender war and a refusal to change. They are considered by Whelehan ‘a direct challenge to feminism’s call for social transformation, by reaffirming – albeit ironically – the unchanging nature of gender relations and sexual roles.’ (Gill, 2007) Studying the content of these magazines in more depth there is an underlying theme where ‘’feminist’ becomes a pejorative word to label, dismiss and silence any woman who object to the lad mags’ ideology’ (Gill, 2007). Two examples of such; ‘an article concerned with the question of ‘how to get your girlfriend to come in your face’ (FHM, April 2000) any possible feedback is forestalled with the comment ‘now before I get any angry letters from feminists†¦..I have asked women and they agree it can be an incredibly rewarding experience’. (Gill, 2007) and ‘a letter to FHM from a woman called Barbara who wished to object to the magazines portrayal of women as ‘weak, fr ail, obedient, submissive and sexually available’ is dismissed as a ‘blundering rant’ from ‘Butch Babs’ (FHM, May 2000)’ (Gill, 2007.) Two prime examples of where the subject of feminism is dismissed before it has even been raised, suggesting the magazines know their content is anti-feminist, but either dispel the argument before it is raised or ridicule and patronise anybody that dares challenge their viewpoint. The second factor is again a backlash, this time on a type of masculinity, himself more aligned with the ideals of feminism, referred to as ‘The New Man’. (Gill, 2007). Trying to dispense with this, the ‘masculinity they constructed was regarded as true to men’s real selves, in contrast to the contrived image of the new man.’ (Gill, 2007.) As with the issue of feminism this form of masculinity was ridiculed and dismissed, leading the way for ‘laddish’ behaviour to be accepted. ‘New man was derided for his ‘miserable liberal guilt’ about sexual affairs and presented as insipid and unappealing. By contrast, new lad was presented as refreshingly uncomplicated in his unreserved appreciation of women’s bodies and heterosexual sex.’ (Gill, 2007) Are these the views of the average man? So we can deduce how these magazines and images within them came to be but where does this leave the average male? Are these depictions of woman the ‘ideal’ for men? ‘By men’s own admission, the playboy ideology has created conflicts both in men’s view of themselves and in their attitude towards women.’ (Lakoff and Scherr, 1984) Many men insist they do not subscribe to this scantily clad, temptress type identity as being their ideal. (Lakoff and Scherr, 1984) suggest what most men fantasize about is a woman they can connect with and that personality is more important than looks; ‘Many men spoke of movement, gracefulness, a direct look in the eyes, an aura of mystery, attributes which cannot quite be captured by a camera, as what they felt constituted female beauty.’ Their ‘observations seem to contradict what the media not only tell us men want but also what they propose women should look like.’ This seeming indifference to contrived images of female form could be the over production and readily available means to consume them. ‘we are so bombarded with visual images that men are taking refuge and looking for the real thing’ (Lakoff and Scherr, 1984) Also another factor is that as we are increasingly aware of artifice in the production of images it can cause the consumer to be disillusioned with them; ‘And its disappointing to find that the women, when interviewed, don’t sound that interesting really. And it’s disappointing because you see these gorgeous women who wouldn’t look twice at you, but then you remember that they probably look like people you know, really, and it’s the careful styling and makeup and photography that makes them so irresistible’ (Gauntlett, 2008) Where do women fit in? What we have to remember is there always a willing subject to construct identity upon. In this case, a women to present as the ideal to men. Whilst feminists may view the women featured in the magazines as ‘submissive, obedient and sexually available’, do the subjects themselves feel this is the case? Pre-feminist women were programmed to be as attractive as possible to their male counterparts. Anne Fogarty an extremely successful American fashion designer highlights the importance of dressing for men ‘when your husband’s eyes light up as he comes in at night, you’re in sad shape if its only because he smells dinner cooking’ (Fogarty, 1959). It is possible that even now women are still programmed by society to want to appear as attractive as possible to men. With the post-feminist shift in gender relations it is argued that women are now objectifying men in the same way that they have traditionally been; ‘looking at scantily-clad women was clearly quite wrong for a right-thinking man, but have started to change their views as time has moved on and gender relations have changed again (including the development of the new language in popular culture where women can treat men as disposable eye-candy too).’ (Gauntlett, 2008). This seems to have caused a sense of double standards when talking of the objectification of women; â€Å"I used to agree, and I mean I really did agree, with women who said that naked women in magazines was a bad thing. But now-a-days I can hardly remember what the argument was. Women can look at handsome men in films and magazines, and men can look at attractive women†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦it seems fair.† (Gaunlett, 2008) Another reason argued why women cultivate this identity is it can provide means to increase their economic and social standing; ‘denied access to power and status by legitimate means, they had to resort to using their looks as a means of furthering their aims.’ (Negrin, 2008). This was very true of the playboy era where working class women did not have the same opportunities for advancement as their male counterparts. Conclusion. So who is determining this supposed ideal of the female form? Psychoanalysis tells us we all respond to natural sexual urges and have the need to objectify other beings. Yet today’s men’s magazines were not primarily constructed to satisfy their sexual urges. The content was also put into place long ago, not to objectify women, but to protect masculinity from any suggestion of homosexuality. What better way to diminish these threats than by filling the pages with naked women? The tone of the ‘new generation’ of men’s magazines was constructed around a backlash to feminist principles and the emergence of the ‘sensitive, understanding man’. Again what better way to protect these new threats by objectifying women and distancing themselves to ‘new man’s’ ideals? As gender roles have shifted and the issue of equality is facing us, men do not feel that looking at women is a guilty pleasure, as women do it themselves towards men and are compensated for it by the advancement of their social and economic standing. It can be said that this construction of female identity truly is for masculine’s sake, not necessarily for their consumption and enjoyment, but to protect and cultivate the meaning and existence of masculinity, reminiscing of a time where men were secure in their place in society. Fig. 1. Bibliography. Halberstam, J. (1998) Female masculinity. Durham, N.C. ; London : Duke University Press, 1998.:. Bennett, A. (2005) Culture and everyday life. London: Sage, p.95 – 116. Berger, J. (1972) Ways of seeing : based on the BBC television series with John Berger / a book made by John Berger †¦ [et al.].. London: Penguin. Butler, J. (1999) Gender Trouble; Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. London: Routledge. Forgarty, A. (2011) The Art of being a Well Dressed Wife. 2nd ed. London: V&A Publishing. Gauntlett, D. (2008) Media, Gender and Identity: An Introduction.. 2nd ed. Oxon: Routledge. Gill, R. (2007) Gender and The Media. Cambridge: Polity Press. Happysocks.com (2011) Happy Socks / FHM UK  « Happy Socks in the Press. [online] Available at: http://www.happysocks.com/press/?p=2851 [Accessed: 2nd June 2012]. Hill, P. (1997) Lacan for beginners. London : Writers and Readers:. Lakoff, R. and Scherr, . (1984) Face value : the politics of beauty . Boston ; London : Routledge & Kegan Paul:. Macdonald, M. (1995) Representing Women:Myths of Femininity in the popular media. London: Edward Arnold, p.192 – 221. Meyers, D. (2002) Gender in the Mirror. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.. Negrin, L. (2008) Appearance and identity: Fashioning the body in Postmodernity. Cowden: Palgarve Macmillan, p.33 – 52. Sturken, M. and Cartwright, L. (2001) Practices of looking: An Introduction to Visual Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press., p.72 – 108.

Ethical Decisions Essay

Irregardless or our differences, one thing that is general to all men is that we all have to make a decision at one point or the other. We are always faced with situations that call for us making a choice among alternative actions. Oftentimes, there are several alternatives before us and we have to make a choice. What do we do? At this stage, we are at a crossroad. Essentially, when man is at a crossroad, he should ask himself why he should do what he wants to do. We should appreciate the fact that the decision we are about to make determines a lot of things. For instance, the next decision we are about to make might make or mar us. We should also understand that since we do not live in an independent world, our actions have effects on the people around us. In view of this, we should not just make decisions but seek to make a good one. If we are to make a meaningful decision or choice, he should therefore evaluate the choices that lie before him. But the long asked question is; â€Å"How do we evaluate our actions? † Historically, many scholars and philosophers have made several attempts at answering the question. Many have come up with theories for the purpose of guiding man in his quest to make a credible decision. Interestingly, some of these theories are opposing to each other and so the struggle continues. We have to consider which of these theories gives the best answer to our question. On thing is sure, we have to make decisions. For better comprehension and clarity of this essay, I will attempt to make a briefly exposition on some of the ethical theories. I will also evaluate an experience I have had in the past in light of these ethical theories. Question that will be addressed in this essay includes; how can my decision be evaluated in light of the various ethical theories? Does these ethical theories approve of my action at this time? If it does, how does it? And if it does not why does it not? As an overview, in the course, we have learnt about utilitarianism, Kantian ethics, ethical egoism and various forms of relative theories, Aristotle’s virtue ethics and Aquinas natural law ethics. When I was in college, I was the course representative of my class. This position made me responsible for a number of duties, part of which is keeping the attendance details of students in the class. As part of the school’s rule, a student must attend at least 65% of all classes before he/she is allowed to sit for the final exam. As expected, some students did not comply with this rule and when we were busy having classes, they were no where to be found. The exam time came and I was told to submit the attendance register so that they can know who sits or misses the exam. When I went through the attendance, I discovered lots of people in my class fell into the category of those that will miss the exam and my friend was one of them. I asked myself, what would I do? After serious thinking, I decided to submit the register without altering it. Why? Because it is what is expected of me to do! Duty demands me to do so. Another reason why I made the decision was because my mind will not be at rest within me if I had altered the attendance register to please my friend. I also wanted them to learn their lessons and be better people. I believe that we should all have a sense of duty and that we should do be faithful people with what is place in our care. Evaluating my decision with Kantian ethics, I will hold that my decision was the right decision after all. In Kantian ethics, focus morality and rightness of action has its basis on duty, treating a man as an end, and universalism. Considering the issue of duty, it is my duty to properly keep the attendant sheet and not alter it. The attendance sheet was placed in my care and so my decision came out of a sense of duty. I did not also expect to be rewarded by my teacher nor do I seek for recognition from the principal. On this basis, Kant himself will approve of what I did. In addition to this, on the issue of treating a man as an end in himself and not a means to an end, I think my actions are also justifiable. For one, I did not submit the attendance sheet because I wanted the teacher to approve of my actions or to say â€Å"job well-done! † Although, I must admit that the teacher commended me and the principal later approve of my conduct, it was not the motivating factor for what I did. I did what I did because it was what I should do. It was the right thing to do. Also, on the issue of universalizability, will I wish that the same action be performed on me if I were the one in their shoes? My answer to this question is â€Å"Yes! † For one, I can not skip classes and even if I skipped classes and had to face the consequence of my action, I don’t think I will feel bad if someone who was merely doing his job did not help me. If I am guilty of an offence and I know the implication before I did it, then I should be made to suffer for it. Furthermore, when I look back and evaluate the decision I made at that time, I always come to a strong conclusion that that was the right thing to do. This is because I believe that no reason given can alter the consideration of duty. I had to ask myself why I was chosen to be the class representative. I was bound by some rules and some things are expected of me. I have to conduct myself in a manner where I will not go against the rules. I could have altered the sheet but that would have been against the purpose of my office. Apart from this, I will be encouraging laxity and indirectly be destroying their lives. They had to learn their lessons and it will not be to their good if they did not learn it. My friend, though furious with me for several years, is now grateful to me for doing what I did. From my own point of view, when we allow erring individuals to go scot-free, we are undermining the order in the society. Our society thrives because there is an order and so this order ought to and must be upheld. Our actions therefore should not be based on feelings or sentiments. We should all learn to do what we are meant to do. That is what is required of us. Reference: †¢ Popper, Karl. R.. â€Å"Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach. †(1972) Oxford University Press.

War and Peace

1310 10/17/12 War War is inevitable when disasters exist, but can sometimes be avoidable when conflicting over cultural matters. Primarily, it is in man’s best interest to provide for himself and his family. Those are his two biggest priorities. When any kind of disaster occurs, he must first look after himself and his family before ensuring the safety of others. A civilization works in the same way. Its goal is to carry out the way of life of the people and ensure that it survives. It will fail to reach that goal if the people in the civilization aren’t willing to fight for themselves and what they believe in.If some kind of natural calamity strikes or an outside power that is willing to kill moves in and violently forces its own laws, traditions, and customs, the people must take appropriate actions or face the downfall of their own kind. They must fight to preserve their customs and traditions, or move to another place to live. Now if the intruding invader has any co ncern for the people, but still desires to enforce their laws upon them, non-violence can be used. Non-violence can only be an alternative to war if the force they are fighting against is non-violent.Otherwise, it will only get trampled upon by a violent, oppressive force. In order for a civilization to survive, it must have an adequate supply of resources for its people. A civilization’s supply of resources can easily be depleted by drought, famine, floods, disease and many other natural disasters. When this happens, the civilization must find a way to solve this problem. If a solution can’t be found while staying in the area, they must find another place to live, but that comes with risks. Going out and searching for a new place is very dangerous and many people may die.Another option the impoverished group of people might take would be to seek help to a nearby but separate establishment. This puts the struggling group in the hands of the healthy one. It is then up t o the healthy group to decide if they are going to share their resources or deny it to them. The denial of aide will displease the struggling group and they might have to turn to violence to protect their people. This is because no compromise can be made and both groups are looking out for themselves. Humanity’s natural instinct o survive is the primary reason why violent wars are inevitable. As I have mentioned before, a civilization’s goal is to do anything they can to ensure the prominence and survival of their culture. The Crusades of the middle-ages are a perfect example of acting out on this cultural pride. In 1071, the Catholic Church had previously lost access of the Holy Lands to the Turks. They make a comeback in 1095, at the main series of the Crusades. A lot of conflict and fighting occurred at this time and lasted until 1291.Due to the reason they were fighting, war could have easily been avoidable. The Christians and the Muslims weren’t necessarily fighting for resources, but for the right to own the Holy Lands. The reason both religions wanted it was because both had ties to it. Since they weren’t fighting for resources, they should have been able to share the land without bloodshed. Both should have been able to exist with each other without conflict. Non-violence can be an alternative to war, but only if the people’s lives are a factor in the opposing force’s power.When the British were controlling their colonies in India, they were imposing taxes and trade. The British were using India for its own economic benefits. If the British started killing off the Indians, then there wouldn’t be anybody to pay them their taxes, not to mention it could start a war neither party could afford or want. Even if the British decided to get violent against the resistance, non-violence would have still been effective. This is because the British would use violence to induce fear, but at a cost.Since the British e conomy is dependent on the population of the people, they would actually damage themselves if they were to kill. When people are faced with the options to either fight or die because of competition over resources, they will chose to fight and war will occur. Some wars and conflicts in the past could have been avoided because both parties were intolerant of each other but wanted the same land. In this case, conflict should never have happened, and compromise should have been the solution.